[]() Index
accents, 139
acquiring language, 160–2
adjacency pairs, 131–2
advertising language, 188–91
age and phonological variation, 147–8
agglutinating languages, 220, 221
allomorphes, 73–6
allophones, 55–7
analogy in language change, 202–2
analytical languages, 220
anaphors, 272
animal communication, 15, 16–17, 18–19, 20, 24–5
anomia, 173
antecedents, 273
anthropological linguistics, 11
aphasia, 173–5
appropriate use of language, 140–2
arbitrariness of sound signals, 16
areally based language similarities, 211, 217–19
articulation of speech sounds, 294–5
artificial intelligence (AI), 128–9
assemblage errors in speech, 171, 172
Balkan languages, 218
binding principle, 272
borrowing linguistic features, 217–19
bound morphemes, 72
the brain and language, 174–7
British English
changes in, 187, 195, 198, 201–2
phonological variation in, 144, 146–8
Received Pronunciation (RP), 54–5
and standard English, 230
Broca’s area/aphasia, 176–7
cardinal vowels, 300–2
caregiver language, 163
c-command, 271–2
chain shifts, 203–5
change see 
Chomsky, Noam, 34–7, 46, 224, 277
government-binding (GB) theory, 265, 269–74
Minimalist Program, 36–7, 265, 274–5
simple models of grammar, 236–40
see also 
classification (inclusion), 113–14
classifying languages, 220–4
code-switching, 154–5
cognate languages, 215
cognitive linguistics, 278
communicative competence, 141
comparative historical linguistics, 206, 212, 213, 224
complex sentences, 99–100
componential analysis, 110–11
computational linguistics, 11
configurational languages, 82, 221
constituent analysis of sentences, 83–101
constraints in language operation, 36, 236
content–process controversy, 162–4
constituent analysis of sentences, 83–101
[]()contrastive linguistics, 210–11
conversational implicatures, 126
conversations
repairs, 132–3
turn-taking, 131–2
cooperative principle, 124–6
correctness in language, 5–7
creativity (productivity), 19–20, 35
creoles, 157
cross-category harmony, 224
Culicover, Peter, 278
Darwin, Charles, 31
deafness and sign language, 167
deep structure, 240–2, 244–7, 253–4
D-structure, 268–9
and generative semantics, 255–6
and semantic components, 261–2
and trace theory, 257–8
derivational morphemes, 72–3
descriptive linguistics, 29, 31–4
diachronic linguistics, 12
dialects, 138–9
direct speech acts, 127
discourse analysis, 124, 129–30
discovery procedures, 34
displacement in language, 18–19, 24
doublets, 224
duality of language, 17–18, 24
Ebonics, 230–1
Empty Category Principle (ECP), 273–4
English language
attitudes to change in, 226–31
classification of, 220, 221, 224
German–English correspondences, 212–14
non-standard English, 230–1
phonetics, 294–302
standard English, 229–30
and Universal Grammar, 267–8
writing a grammar for, 236–40
see also 
Esperanto, 155
ethnicity and phonological variation, 147–8
evolutionary theory, 31
Extended Standard Theory (EST), 254, 255, 257
external reconstruction of language, 206, 207, 208
Farrar, Dean, 227
felicity conditions, 128
fluent aphasia, 174
foregrounding, 180–3
formality–informality scale, 141–2, 143
function words, 83
fuzziness in meaning, 114–15
games, language, 40–2
gaps in syntax, 170
garden-path sentences, 169–70
generative linguistics, 29, 34–7, 235–49
Generative Semantics (GS), 254, 255–7
genetically based language similarities, 211, 212–17
German–English correspondences, 212–14
glottal stops, 201
government-binding (GB) theory, 265, 268–74
and generative linguistics, 35–6
see also 
Grice’s cooperative principle, 124–6
happiness conditions, 127–8
hard news formula, 187–8
[]()head words, 224
hedges in speech, 151
historical linguistics, 11, 29, 30–1
comparative, 206, 212, 213, 224
Hittite, 215
homonyms, 69
hyponyms, 113
I/me, change in the use of, 195–6
implication universals in languages, 219–20
Indian English, 230
indirect speech acts, 127
Indo–European languages, 30–1
reconstructing the parent language, 215–17
systematic correspondences between, 212–15
inflectional morphemes, 72–3, 181
inflections, 82
Innuit (Eskimo language), 223
interactive activation, 168–9, 205–6
internal reconstruction of language, 206–7, 208
IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet), 52–3
Jackendoff, Ray, 277–8
Johnson, Samuel, 226–7
Jones, Sir William, 30
journalistic writing, 187–8
Labov, William, 144–5, 146, 148, 149, 196
design features of, 15–25
origin of, 25–6
use of, 3–4
language change, 195–209
attitudes towards, 226–31
chain shifts, 203–5
interacting changes, 205–6
natural tendencies in, 201–2
reconstruction, 206–8
speed of, 198–200
therapeutic changes, 202–3
language games, 40–2
language planning, 155
language similarities, 211–24
genetically based, 211, 212–17
typologically based, 212, 219–24
language universals, 36, 235–6
Latin-based frameworks, 7–8
Latin–English correspondences, 214
learnability problem, 265–6
lexical categories, 79
lexical conditioning, 73, 74–6
lexical diffusion, 199–200
lexical fields, 109
lexical items, 67, 68, 69, 106–7
synonyms and opposites, 111–13
limericks, 186–7
lingua franca, 155
single-language specialists versus universalists, 42–6
and traditional grammar, 5–8
linguistic typology, 12, 212, 219–20
linguists, 4–5
literary language see 
Lowth, Robert, Bishop of London, 227
Martha’s Vineyard, change in vowel sounds, 196–7, 199
maturationally controlled behaviour, 161–2
meaning see ; 
mental models, 116–17
metre, poetic, 185
[]()metrical phonology, 61–3
Milroy, Jim and Lesley, 149–50
Minimalist Program, 36–7, 265, 274–5
minimal pairs, 54
minimum free form, 66
allomorphes, 73–6
inflectional, 181
recognition of, 71–2
types of, 72–3
correspondences between languages, 212–15
criteria for language classification, 220–1
motherese, 163
multilingual communities, 154–5
nationality and language, 137–8
neurolinguistics, 174–7
Nixon, Richard, 190
non-standard English, 230–1
NP (noun phrases) tests, 91–2
offloading transformations, 261–2
onomatopoeia, 184
opposites of words, 111, 112–13
Orwell, George, 187
Oxford English, 229–30
parallel processing, 168
parent languages, reconstructing, 215–17
parts of speech (word classes), 76–9
patterning in language, 20–1, 24
perceptual strategies, 169
phase structure grammar, 238–40
philosophical linguistics, 11
non-segmental, 60–1
shared properties of, 58–60
sound combinations, 57–8
phonological conditioning, 73–4
phonological variation, 144–8
phonology see 
pidgins, 155–7
poetic writing, 184–7
politeness in conversations, 133–5, 140
politics, language of, 190–1
population typologies, 218–19
power talking, 152
power to solidarity shift, 154
the cooperative principle, 124–6
discourse analysis, 129–30
exchanges/adjacency pairs, 131–2
remembered frameworks, 128–9
speech acts, 126–8
Principles and Parameters (P and P) model, 266–7, 273–4
pro-drop languages, 223, 267–8
proto-languages, 216–17
prototypes, 115
acquiring language, 160–2
child language, 164–6
content–process controversy, 162–4
sign language, 167
sources of evidence, 160
speech disorders, 173–5
speech production, 170–3
understanding syntax, 169–70
word recognition, 167–9
psychology of communication, 159
reconstruction of language, 206–8
recursion, 100–1
registers in language, 139–42, 180
repairs in conversation, 132–3
repetition in poetic writing, 184–6
replacives, 75–6
[]()representations in semantics, 116–17
REST (Revised Extended Standard Theory), 257–9
rhyme, 185
Sapir, Edward, 221
selection errors in speech, 171–3
classification (inclusion), 113–14
fuzziness and family resemblances, 114–16
mental models and representations, 116–17
overlaps, 109–11
semantic fields, 107–10
synonyms and opposites, 111–13
[]()syntax–meaning overlap, 101–2
sentence meaning, 117–18
sentence patterns, 80–103
constituent analysis, 83–101
word order, 81–2
serial processing, 168
sex differences
language use, 150–2
phonological variation, 146–7
sign language, 167
similes, 183
single-language specialists, 42–6
slimmed-down transformations, 263
slips of the tongue, 170–3
social class
and language style, 153–4
and phonological variation, 145, 146–7
social networks, 148–50
change in language styles, 153–4
dialect and accent, 138–9
linguistics and nationality, 137–8
multilingual communities, 154–5
phonological variation, 144–8
power talking, 152
social networks, 148–50
speech versus writing, 142–3
correspondences between languages, 213, 218
and the IPA, 52–3
metrical phonology, 61–3
sound signals, 15–16
speech acts, 126–8
speech communities, 138
speech disorders, 173–5
speech production, 170–3
speech versus writing, 142–3
split infinitives, 7–8
sound patterns, 51–64
standard English, 229–30
structural linguistics, 32–4
structure dependence in language, 22–3
advertising language, 188–91
foregrounding, 180–3
journalistic writing, 187–8
patterns of words, 182–3
poetic writing, 184–7
tropes, 183–4
supportive speech, 151–2
surface structure, 240–2, 247, 272–3
and trace theory, 257–8
synchronic linguistics, 12
synonyms, 111–12
syntax, 10
understanding, 169–70
syntax–meaning overlap, 101–2
systematic correspondences between languages, 212–15
T-conjunction reduction, 253–4
Tok Pisin, 156–7
Tomasello, Michael, 278
T-passive, 253
transformational–generative grammar (TGG), 36
transformational grammar (TG)
Chomskyan Standard Theory of, 241–9, 252, 255–6, 258–60, 265, 268, 269
combining transformations, 262–3
framework for, 235–49
transformations (T-rules), 248–9
problems with, 251–64
see also ; 
Trench, Richard Chenevix, archbishop of Dublin, 228
tropes, 183–4
typologically based language similarities, 212, 219–24
typological reconstruction of language, 207, 208
Universal Grammar (UG), 36, 46, 161, 265–75
see also ; 
universalists, 42–6
verbs, syntax–meaning overlap, 101–2
voicing, 294–5
vowels, 54–5
English language, 207–302
Werner’s area/aphasia, 176
women and language, 146, 149–51
word-order criteria, for language classification, 221–4
words, 65–79
children learning the meaning of, 166–7
classes, 76–9
defining, 66–8
identifying, 68–9
linking together, 81–3
meaning, 106–17
recognizing, 167–9
stylistics, 182–8
written language, speech versus writing, 142–4
Wyld, Henry, 229–30
Young Grammarians, 31